Ngo Essay Essay

NGOs are difficult to define and classify, and the term ‘NGO’ is not used consistently. As a result, there are many different classifications in use. The most common use a framework that includes orientation and level of operation. An NGO’s orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human rights, environmental, or development work. An NGO’s level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local, international or national. â€Å"Confronting the Classification Problem: Toward a Taxonomy of NGOs† One of the earliest mentions of the acronym â€Å"NGO† was in 1945, when the UN was created. The UN, which is an inter-governmental organization, made it possible for certain approved specialized international non-state agencies – or non-governmental organisations – to be awarded observer status at its assemblies and some of its meetings. Later the term became used more widely. Today, according to the UN, any kind of private organization that is independent from government control can be termed an â€Å"NGO†, provided it is not-profit, non-criminal and not simply an opposition political party. Professor Peter Willetts, from the University of London, argues the definition of NGOs can be interpreted differently by various organizations and depending on a situation’s context. He defines an NGO as â€Å"†an independent voluntary association of people acting together on a continuous basis for some common purpose other than achieving government office, making money or illegal activities.†[5] In this view, two main types of NGOs are recognized according to the activities they pursue: operational NGOs that deliver services and campaigning NGOs. Although Willetts proposes the operational and campaigning NGOs as a tool to differentiate the main activities of these organizations, he also explains that a single NGO may often be engaged in both activities. Many NGOs also see them as mutually reinforcing.

Managerial Decision Making in the Aerospace Industry Case Study

As in many other industries, the IT has changed the way of performing management process. For example, the cost management process went from hand-written and mainframe computers to sophisticated software applications that help reducing the workload, headcount, and expedite the job completion. Also, this helps improving the outcome quality and increase productivity. The managerial accounting process in the aerospace industries follows a certain steps.The success of each of the steps depends heavily on the previous step, any break of inefficiency of one or more of the steps will collapse the whole process. Organizations have to chose between operating a commercial-of-the-shelf software of invest in designing a special software. The companies that chose to operate the commercial software will be able to use it in for operations such as cost estimating, analysis, and proposal pricing.While the special designed software allows more specific operations, it requires a substantial investment to create and operate. Accurate estimation is critical for the financial success and it allows the organization to successfully propose price decision, source of investment. The Department of Defense requires contractor to have an â€Å"acceptable† estimating system. There are different estimate methods such as round table, comparison, detailed, and parametric. A combination of the four methods could be used based of the needs and timing.The pricing proposal step is one of the complexes and demanding functions that requires an analysis for alternative program plans and schedule, prospective cash flow and return on investment, satisfy internal management views, and respond to the costumers’ expectations. The project cost has been depending on applications that were designed internally to help account manager to analyze the cost. After that, some companies created software that targeted the aerospace industry to help them with project scheduling and earned value.The con tinuous change of requirement made by DOD forces the aerospace industry to accommodate the new demands and there was more application software available. The constant change of requirements and imposing new regulations by the government and implementation of the advanced software applications have greatly improved the productivity of the cost analysis managers and reduce the workload on the contractors. This resulted in having more effective cost analysis staff that performs better in satisfying the requirements in less time and cost, and provides an more accurate information.

What is the Difference in Customer Service Communication between Hong Essay

What is the Difference in Customer Service Communication between Hong Kong and Australia in Clothing and Accessories Retail Industry - Essay Example Sales personnel and their customers were observed as they deal with each other during the sales process. Likewise, a survey was also conducted to support the observations. It was found out that Hong Kong sales personnel rush to close a deal while Australians take their time. During closing time, their Australian counterparts rush to go out of work premises while Hong Kong personnel tend to stay behind and close more deals. Likewise, when it comes to expression, smile is frequently used by Hong Kong sales ladies, while a regular distance when standing was observable among Australian staff. These differences are necessary to provide an insight in dealing with sales personnel from different countries or culture. The topic of this research is to find three main differences in customer service communication between Hong Kong and Australia in clothing and accessories retail industry. It will try to establish that there are unique practices among retail or sales personnel when it comes to handling customer needs or requests when purchasing at clothing or accessories retail shops in Hong Kong and in Australia. This research will describe the differences in the three main elements of non-verbal communications that shall deal with kinesics, chronemics, and expression (Darn, 2005) when interacting with customers. Kinesics pertains to body, facial, hand and arm movements that are used to communicate and the scientific study pertaining to it. Chronemics pertain to the sense of time as in punctuality and the studies that surrounds it. And expression pertains to the facial condition that represents the human emotion. 1.4. Background and Literature Review It has been acknowledged that there are generally accepted non-verbal communication understood cross-culturally (Shen, 1996). As for retail shops, service quality perception (Smith, Boton and Wagner, 1999) give importance on the communication process of which sales personnel deal with

Aldi Tea Advertisement Analysis Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Aldi Tea Advertisement Analysis - Coursework Example This advertisement passes on the products benefits which in this case are the Aldi tea in a way that it shows that its product is non-alcoholic and can be consumed by those who don’t take alcohol. It further states its benefit indirectly considering the fact that the old lady specifically states, it’s her who prefers the Gin to the tea hence we can assume that the rest of her family probably likes tea, like her husband thus it’s a product that is beneficial to all other family members, even young ones and has no harm at all. In regard to this, a competitive advertisement should outline and properly include the advertised products benefit to its market segment (Mullins & Walker, 2010). Unlike in the tea advertisement where the tea’s benefits are not fully outlined, one should exhaust all products benefits. It is researched that tea has substantial benefits to mankind. It contains tea phenolic that is responsible for inhibiting the bacteria that causes bad b reath, it also speeds up fat oxidation hence increasing metabolic rates to the human body (Muirhead, 2008). It is also confirmed that tea contains amino acid that lowers stress hormones in the body hence boosts mind alertness level, while on the other hand it boosts immune system in the body (Muirhead, 2008). ... Most known ways of product differentiation include preserved production and marketing; it is where the producers find, maintain and purify a particular raw material for a particular product hence no other product will taste similarly (Mullins & Walker, 2010). Another way used is that of segregation. This involves grouping, separation or selection of the product at its raw level depending on its quality at production level or materials. The third method used is traceability; here the product is researched for bacteria and any chemical residues levels to ascertain if any and to what extent (Kotler & Armstrong, 2010). Though in Aldi tea advertisement, its product is not effectively differentiated from other products in the above ways, it tries to differentiate it through its advertisement in the sense that first, unlike other products and advertisement that go for celebrities and young people to advertise for them, here they went for an old lady which creates unfitness with the product. The second difference in this advertisement is the fact that most if not all adverts specifically talk about the advertised product and no other product are included in the advert. Unlike those, here the old lady tells us how her husband likes Aldi tea, but she herself prefers Gin to the tea hence creating uniqueness in the advert. The Aldis tea advert further creates contrast between its product and that of Gin since one is alcoholic and the other is non-alcoholic. The properties of a good advert are that which creates contrast or a difference between its products and adverts and those of its competitors. This helps so that its product is not mistaken for another product, or its advertisement (Fletcher,

Political Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Political Science - Essay Example In China, with many people at the government level being strongly influenced by the controlling socialist traditions and forces, it might be difficult for them to accept democratic change. It is thought that the generation currently in the government and main controlling bodies will eventually pass out of power. There is a chance then the controlling bodies will change their way of thinking. However, the people in China’s society will not pass on so soon, and it is their views that would certainly count in the development of a democratic state (Brook & Frolic, 1997, 25-28). Though opposing forces among the people are neo-authoritarianism and neo-conservatism, the general mood is pro-democracy. One positive aspect of the people’s views is that, over the past 15 to 20 years, the youth has largely been in favor of democratization. One example of democratic expression by youth was observed at Tienaman Square. Here, in the early 1990s, students in China assembled to carry out a protest, but were dispersed when the forces came down harshly on them and massacred many. This was certainly a black day for chances of democratizing China (Brook & Frolic, 1997, 25-28). Since this incident was not so long ago, people wonder what the government’s mood towards democracy really is. However, since the gruesome incident at Tienaman Square there have been positive changes as well (Ding, 2002, 25-31). One positive change regarding democratizing China is highlighted by China’s entry to the World Trade Organization (WTO). This means that international democratic trade law applies to China like it does to other member countries of the WTO. The manner in which China is protected under trade law like other democratic countries is a positive sign (Bhattasali & Martin, 2004, 22-30). Under the WTO agreement, China now allows countries to introduce their products in China, and importers in China operate with more liberty now. Also, China

Marketing Planning and Strategy (Marketing Yourself)2 Assignment

Marketing Planning and Strategy (Marketing Yourself)2 - Assignment Example According to Parrish (2014), marketers always strive to create ‘needs’ for their customers because this strategy can assist marketers to make their products/services absolutely necessary to the targeted market segment. In contrast, consumers try to distinguish between their ‘needs and wants’ so as to make effective utilization of money. I do not think that marketers overlook the target market. Generally marketers develop specific policies and practices to market their products/services to the target market. Hence marketers cannot meet their goals once they fail to focus on the target market. I strongly believe that an exercise was carried out to identify the target market for this course because candidates are required to express their knowledge in marketing profession. I do believe that I will be more marketable on completing this course because it is comprehensive enough to provide me with an in-depth knowledge regarding the marketing profession. Parrish, J. (2014). Creating A Sense Of Urgency: Why Marketing Must Behave Like Sales. Forbes, Sep 1. Retrieved from

FOMO Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

FOMO - Assignment Example It appears that something an individual would not want to miss on the online platform is always happening. As a result, the frequent logging in and out of social media devices denotes the â€Å"impulse control problem.† Social media addiction is a problem because it has created overreliance on technology and technological devices. People hardly interact one-on-one these days. Instead, they remain glued to their social media devices. The online environment is seemingly the new way of life, and more so mode of communication. Overreliance on social media and technology is undoubtedly an addiction. At a personal level, I think I am addicted to social media. I have checked my emails or commented on a Facebook post several times at the dinner table. In addition, I lose track of time when I am actively chatting. Sometimes social media just rules the world around me. For these reasons, I believe I am addicted to social

Business law Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Business law - Assignment Example The guests should be in fit and able to make payments as per Section 1(3) HPA 1956. As per the British Law the innkeeper will be in the liability for safeguarding the interest of the guests in reason for the award received from the guests. The innkeepers are also bound to supply accommodation to the guests along with their luggage. The hotels have the right to allocate the rooms to their guest. The hotel authority is responsible for the safety of the guests during their stay in the hotel. The hotel authorities are in charge of taking reasonable care for the safety of their guests during their stay in the hotel. As per the British law the innkeeper’s liability for the safety of their guests is strict. The issue of liability of the hotel authority arises only if there is negligence on the part of the innkeeper regarding the belongings of the customer. In case of non delegable duty greater standard of care is required by the person or authority in responsibility but only in respe ct of those things as stated by them and not those which has been prohibited or not stated by the innkeeper (Brotherton, 2000, pp.145). Again based on exemption clause, a contract between two parties might include some limitations or exemption as per requirement. A party might be exempted from some liabilities based on some clauses (Jones,2011, p.168). Based on the rules stated above, Freda could not blame the hotel authority for the misplacement of her belongings. The hotel authority clearly stated â€Å"The Gullies Hotel and its Management would not be held liable for the safety of any valuable left in the guest's room and the Hotel has safe deposit boxes at the reception.† This is an exemption clause which limits the liability of the innkeeper in this case. Freda’s charge would have relevant if she had kept her belongings under the safe deposit box whose responsibility was borne by the hotel authority. 2. Discuss the doctrine of precedent. Give specific case example s where the court has applied this legal principle. Doctrine of Precedent or Stare Decisis is a part of common law. It is a process by which courts use verdicts made in earlier cases to assist the verdict of the case presently in consideration. The precedent is arrived by combining the verdict given in the previous court cases under similar facts. There have been many cases which came into the court room but their decisions could not be given just because there were no fixed laws prescribed. Judges often delivered verdicts in the courts based on an impulse or sentiment. To overcome such shortcomings the doctrine of precedent was framed where the law stated on a case was followed over time as judges abided by the decisions of previous cases. The judges would meet regularly and evaluate the decisions they made earlier. They would choose the most suitable verdict and apply those if any similar condition came up. The Doctrine of Precedent is subject to certain general rules. As per the binding precedent rule, lower courts are bound to follow verdicts made in superior courts. As per persuasive precedent, superior courts have an option to use the help or refer cases of lower courts in decision making. Most courts are by law bound to follow their own decisions made earlier. The verdict given by the judge has two parts. Ratio decidendi states the principle or cause for deciding the case in a particular way. It forms

Anomaly Detection Methodologies Research Proposal

Anomaly Detection Methodologies - Research Proposal Example Besides, current practices and procedures aimed at identifying such patients are slow, expensive and unsuitable for incorporating new analytical mechanisms. Buckeridge (2007) argues that Current algorithms used for achieving this risk stratification are dependent on the labelling of the patient data as positive or negative. This classification implies that determining trends and subsets that are rare in a given population requires an analysis of large data sets and the identification of positive aspects up to a threshold level. This process, as explained above, is not just slow or expensive, but puts additional burden on patients and hospital administrators, thereby affecting the validity and effectiveness of such practices. The proposed study aims to use appropriate anomaly detection methods that are known to be suitable for detecting interesting or unusual patterns in a given data set. Bohmer (2009) says that new frameworks allow anomaly detection to be applied towards determining anomalous patterns in subsets of attributes associated with a data set. In simpler words, anomaly detection methods identify unusual occurrences with the data that appear to deviate from the normal behaviour exhibited by a majority of the data set. Examples of such anomalies include an epidemic outbreak, traffic congestion in a certain section of roads or an attack on a network (Applegate, 2009). The proposed research aims to extend the standard approach to anomaly detection by devising techniques to identify partial patterns that exhibit anomalous behaviour with the remainder of the data set. Such techniques are believed to aid in the detection and assessment of unusual outcomes or decisions related to patient management in healthcare institutions. Anomaly Detection Several studies by researchers like Nurcan (2009) and Anderson (2007) have applied anomaly detection techniques to healthcare. In fact, anomaly detection has proved useful in areas under clinical behaviour and medical t echnology such as blood samples, vestibular information, mammograms and electroencephalographic signals (Brandt, 2007). However, the same principles have found little application in enhancing the quality of patient care or identifying existing deficiencies in the assistance extended to patients. The proposed study aims to improve and extend anomaly detection techniques to such relatively unexplored domains. While previous studies have relied primarily on detecting existing conditions such as diseases, the proposed research will apply similar methods to ascertain the level of risk that accompanies a potential outcome being analyzed. Thus, the measurement of this risk as a result of uncovering anomalies is likely to help in forecasting the vulnerability of patients to certain diseases or deficiencies. The study proposed to utilize several anomaly detection methods by applying them to existing clinical data on patients. In doing so, the number of outcomes and patients being analyzed wi ll be much larger and wider than those adopted by previous studies. Some of the detection methods that will be included as part of the proposed study are listed below: Nearest Neighbour method As the name suggests, the nearest neighbour method helps detect patients (anomalies) from a given population based on information pertaining to their ‘n’ nearest neighbours. This method is based on the principle of vectors that are used to sum the distances between a point and it ‘n’ closes neighbours. As a result, dense and sparse regions are identified based on the total score which is lesser in the former case

Bank Product Profitability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10000 words

Bank Product Profitability - Essay Example There are so many countries in which the development is very low. That is all due to the lack or resources and lack of financial approaches, the financial institutions for every country needs high investment all these markets are the part of macro economics studies in which the markets of different kinds can be brought together to set the overall structure of the economy. These markets in every country serve as the full adjustment of economic variables within them and are responsible for the growth of the country. In many of the economies, financial markets are those places at which the people can easily buy and sell the securities of different types. These markets are associated with the financial assets and these assets are the financial securities that they buy and sell in the market. The assets which come under the category of the financial assets are the financial securities such as the stocks of various types and bonds with different maturities and the commodities at low costs. These markets are called the efficient market where the buying and selling of different types of securities takes place. These financial markets serve various functions in all the countries of the world and are doing g efforts to attain the liquidity at high levels. In these financial markets it is easy to buy and sell for the people because they offer the large number of buyers and the large number of sellers for selling of the securities. The major objective of the creation of these financial markets is the creation of the good use of savings in the betterment of the economic growth of the country because if the economy does not use the good methods for adjustment of savings the growth of that economy will be low. Thus for their growth of any economy the healthy growth of the financia l markets us necessary. (Andrade, Gegor, Mitchell, Stafford, 103-120, 2001) "Financial markets, institutions and instruments bridge the gap between the academic and professional finance communities. With contributions from leading academics, as well as practitioners from organizations such as the SEC and the Federal Reserve, the journal is equally relevant to both groups. Each issue is devoted to a single topic, which is examined in depth, and a special fifth issue is published annually highlighting the most significant developments in money and banking, derivative securities, corporate finance, and fixed-income securities". (Athanasoglou, Brissimis, Delis, n.p., 2005) These financial markets have three basic types of functions these are the first function which is associated with these financial markets is the raising of capital in the capital markets, the capital markets are the securities markets and their functions are conducted by the government and different private companies. They raised the funds there and these are associated with the long term securities and they are the stock markets and the bonds market with long term maturities. These capital markets are further divided in to two more markets which are called the primary markets

John Deere Time line Essay Example for Free

John Deere Time line Essay Deere married his first wife, Demarius Lamb, in January 1827. The newlyweds perceived to have 5 children, Francis Albert, Jeanette, Ellen, Francis Alma and Charles. Demariuss past away and Deere married Lucinda Lamb, in June 1867. They had four children together Emma, Hiram, Alice and Mary. John Deere was an Illinois blacksmith from the Midwest and inventor. John Deere realized the wood and cast iron plow invention currently being used was weak and not working to its full ability. 1837- John Deere invents the first steel plow in his shop located in grand detour, IL. This let the pioneer farmers cut cleaner and faster furrows through the Midwest’s sticky prairie soils. 1838- John Deere evolved into John Deere, manufacturer co. 1842- John Deere business added retailing, taking orders for the patent Cary Plow. 1843- Deere and Leonard Andrus become co-partners in the art and trade of blacksmithing, plow-making and all things thereto†¦ 1848- The growing plow business moves to Moline, Illinois, 75 miles southwest of Grand Detour. Moline offers water power and transportation advantages. Deere chooses a new partner, Robert N. Tate, who moves to Moline and raises the rafters on their three-story blacksmith shop by July 28. 1849 A work force of about 16 builds 2,136 plows. 1852 Deere buys out his partners. For the next 16 years, the company is known variously as John Deere, John Deere Company, Deere Company, and Moline Plow Manufactory. 1853 Sixteen-year old Charles, Deeres only living son, joins the firm as a bookkeeper following graduation from a Chicago commercial college. 1858 The business totters during a nationwide financial panic. Maneuverings to avoid bankruptcy shuffle ownership and managerial arrangements. John Deere remains president, but power passes to 21-year-old Charles Deere. He will run the company for the next 49 years. 1863 The company makes the Hawkeye Riding Cultivator, the first Deere implement adapted for riding. 1864 John Deere obtains the companys first actual patent for moulds used in casting steel plows. Another follows in a few months and a third the next year. 1867 Charles Deere sues Candee, Swan Co., a competitor, for trademark infringement. The case has precedent-setting implications for trademark law. Could Deere preempt the word Moline which it has been using in its advertising, so that no similar product could incorporate it? The ultimate answer is no. The Walking Cultivator is patented in August 1867. Although farmers might prefer riding, the lower cost of this unit makes it sell even though the man has to walk in soft ground while straddling a row of corn. 1868 After 31 years as a partnership or single proprietorship, the concern is incorporated under the name Deere Company. There are four shareholders at first, six within a year. Charles and John Deere control 65 percent of the stock. 1869 Charles Deere and Alvah Mansur establish the first branch house, Deere, Mansur Co., in Kansas City. A semi-independent distributor of Deere products within a certain geographic area, it is the forerunner of the companys current farm and industrial-equipment sales branches and sales regions.

Industrial Espionage Intelligence

Industrial Espionage Intelligence The information revolution and the advances in technology during the past decades has brought to fore many challenges and issues to both governments and businesses, the age-old crime of espionage or the practice of spying to gather secret information is one the most potential issues facing information-based societies such as the United States, today. Although, much has been documented as fact and fiction concerning the traditional foreign agents and spies, in todays world of multi-national, multi-billion dollar corporations, and industrial espionage is a growing danger. Furthermore, this is aggravated by the fact that many large businesses are physically disseminated which has distributed management and administration, and more job specialization. High technology offers the ability to collect and use information for competitive edge over others in meeting business and government objectives, it also makes modern information and technology-based nations and businesses vulnerable as information can be stolen from electronic storage media and transmitted in seconds without even physically removing the data. The paper attempts to examine and understand the challenge of espionage to industries and businesses in America. However, in doing so, it shall also look at the historical development of espionage and examines how the advances in technology in the recent years have facilitated the act of espionage, and also the measures that may prove useful in controlling Industrial Espionage. As a prelude to the research, it may be worthwhile to understand how industrial espionage is defined, its nature and implications. Industrial Espionage Definition and Nature The Federal Bureau of Investigation defines industrial espionage as â€Å"an individual or private business entity sponsorship or coordination of intelligence activity conducted for the purpose of enhancing their advantage in the marketplace.† [Cited Boni and Kovacich, 2000; p. 48] While this definition may imply Industrial Espionage to be more or less the same as business or competitive intelligence, John F Quinn explains the essential difference between the two while business intelligence is generally under private sponsorship using an â€Å"open† methodology, espionage may be either government or privately sponsored and clandestine. [Cited Boni and Kovacich, 2000; p. 47] My definition of Industrial Espionage is it is the process of collecting information and data for the purpose of generating revenue. Generating revenue is very important aspect for these people. They are not thrill seeker, if the compensation does not justify the reward they will not bother attempting to collect the required information. Individuals who commit Industrial Espionage are not looking for information for information sake, but for information that will produce a big payday when acquired by a second party or when the information is viewed by unauthorized personnel the value of the information is no longer valuable. Money and power are motivators and the stakes in todays billion dollar business environment the rewards far exceeds risks. In the highly competitive and globalized business environment, proprietary intellectual property and economic information is considered the most valuable commodity by all nations, particularly the advanced ones. Businesses and/or governments involve in espionage activities for the purpose of unlawfully or clandestinely obtaining sensitive financial, trade or economic policy information, proprietary/sensitive economic information; or critical technologies including but not limited to data, plans, tools, mechanisms, compounds, designs, formulae, processes, procedures, programs, codes or commercial strategies, whether tangible or intangible, for competitive business advantage. The proprietary information so stolen may have been stored, compiled or memorialised physically, electronically, graphically, photographically or in writing and may be reasonably protected by the owner and not available to the general public. [Boni and Kovacich, 2000; p. 48] Proprietary information may be stolen by employees accessing the business and company databases, hackers breaking into the company server, or sponsored teams of burglars. While companies may lose vital business information through employees leaving the job, espionage occurs when the employee willfully looks for the data, steals it, copies it and sells it for money, or for his own unit, when he intends to produce a similar item. Espionage by competitors involve spying the activities of other businesses and unlawfully gathering of secret information, so that they can steer their businesses by adopting appropriate strategies and stay at par with, if not ahead of, competition in the marketplace. Interested outsiders and competitors adopt many methods including bribery, detective spying through shady agencies, searching through garbage, also referred to as ‘dumpster diving, scams to trick workers through ‘social engineering, or even expose loopholes and weak points in the live s of workers and blackmail them for gathering information. The theft or unlawful receipt of intellectual property and economic information, particularly by competitors and foreign governments threatens the development and production of goods derived from such information and also results in loss of profits, market share and perhaps the business itself and may thereby result in the weakening of the economic power of ones country. [Boni and Kovacich, 2000] In the present information-driven business environment, businesses tend to address the threat seriously, and in their quest to gain power, maintain control, increase market share and beat competition, nations and businesses espouse espionage, treating it casually and engaging themselves in espionage, using information and technology as armaments of business and economic warfare. [Jones, Kovacich and Luzwick, 2002] The Process The process of Industrial Espionage can be divided into four categories: requirements, collection, analysis, and evaluation. First, the requirements have to be established. This is when the individual is targeted and approached to provide specific information concerning a specific job or task within a company or organization. Most often a third party will inquire to protect the inquiring person, organization, or corporation from liability. Most companies focus their espionage efforts only on certain task or functions. The second phase allows the collector to focus their efforts. Collection is the key component of Industrial Espionage. This is the key element for payment and has the most risk involved. These individuals must evaluate the risk of obtaining the needed information or data with the value of the fee that they will be paid and the risks of being caught. The individual collecting/obtaining the information may use any of the following to obtain the required information/data: physical attacks, electronic attacks, or even attacks against the employees to gain the necessary information. If the rewards are so great (finically), they will go to whatever lengths necessary to obtain the information, even murder if necessary. If the request is for a working copy of a companys product the Collector might simply have to go out and by one, then send away for the technical information any customer is entitled to. While this might see strange use of a Collector, remember some of the companies collecting information exist in embargoed nations such as Cuba or Iraq where state of the art US product are not readily available. If the request is for the complete production data for a complex computer chip the job might entail illegal, and therefore more risky, methods such as bribery or burglary. Analysis follows. Now that a Collector has accumulated a mass of data and information they must take time to see what they have. This entails everything from reading the contents of documents, both physical and electronic, processing raw data, and in some cases looking at the flow of employees and information to see what might be happening and where it is occurring. Once the data has been analyzed the Collector refers to the original Requirement to see if he has meet his goals. This is the Evaluation phase. If the clients Requirements have been met the information is package, transmitted, and the Collector paid. Extra information collected is evaluated for value to the current of future clients and recorded for future transactions. In those cases where the Requirements have not been met, the Collector uses the information to return to the Collection Phase, thus beginning the process anew. Espionage A Brief History The technological advances and the global Internet have drastically reformed the art of espionage. The practice of espionage has transformed revolutionarily over the years, as any aspect of life and civilization, from the old manual and human intensive profession to the sophisticated, hi-tech pursuit of stealing electronic information in networked societies. Toffler and Heidi provide a Three Wave Evolution model to explain the technological evolution, as well as the evolution of espionage. [Toffler, 1980; Toffler Heidi, 1994] Accordingly, during the First Wave period, extending from the beginning of human race to about mid 1700s and characterized by the agricultural revolution, information was passed by word of mouth or in written correspondence. The theft of information was minimal as most of the people could not read or write and espionage was manual, relying mostly on personal observation and one-to-one contact. The Second Wave or the ‘rise of the industrialized civilization, which followed and last until a few years after World War II, experienced exponential growth in communications and the sharing of information, made possible by such inventions as telegraph, telephone and computers. The later years of this period saw the development and use of cryptography as communication protection and anti-espionage tool, though essentially by governments. While businesses had also begun to use computers, most of the systems were stand-alone and hence the threat of espionage was limited. Espionage was thou ght of primarily as a government and/or military problem and anti-espionage measures during the period essentially consisted of some form of physical security of physical documents and equipment, such as combination of locks, guards, alarms and fences. Emphasis was also placed on personnel security hiring honest and ethical employees in computer field was deemed to limit espionage threats. As only few people operated computers, the threat to electronically stored information was limited. [Toffler, 1980; Toffler and Heidi, 1994] The Third Wave or the age of technology and information, sweeping the world today has seen more advances in communication and information sharing, and paradoxically more threats, than the First and Second Wave periods combined. While the Internet and the globally linked communication systems serve as a mainstream business medium, objectionable reports on how high-tech criminals in businesses and government intelligence agencies of all advanced nations are exploiting the possibilities of the cyber world to meet their various ends, continue to be appal the world conscience. Today, a large number of organizational actors and individual information-brokers sponsored by government and otherwise, are using the Internet to commit the old crime of espionage in a revolutionary new way what Boni and Kovacich terms the ‘netspionage or network enabled espionage. According to them, in the present information-driven globalized society, the distinction between espionage motivated wholly by m ilitary advantage and the quest for market domination is blurred of not completely eliminated. The researchers claim that the 21st century, envisaged as ‘the â€Å"Information Age† or the â€Å"Age of Technology† to be may instead come to be known as the â€Å"Age of Netspionage Agent and Techno-Spy.† [Boni and Kovacich, 2000; p. 5] Before attempting to understand the occurrence of industrial espionage in America, it may be vital to understand the techniques used by the modern espionage Netspionage agents and techno-spies so that adequate and effective measures could be adopted to prevent the threat of espionage. Some of the common methods used by Netspionage agents include: Data Diddling changing data before or during entry into the computer Scavenging Obtaining information left around a computer system and in trash cans Data Leakage Removing information by smuggling it out as part of the printed document Piggybacking/ Impersonation Physical access to electronic data using anothers User ID and password to gain computer access and protected information. Simulation and Modelling Using the computer as a tool to plan and/or control a criminal act Wire Tapping Tapping into a computers communication links to be able to read the information being transmitted between systems and networks [Boni and Kovacich, 2000; p. 58] Apart from the above, the use of software application programs, which are standardized over the years enable the use of a variety of hacker tools including Trojan Horse enabling covert placement of instructions in the program for unauthorized functions; Trap Doors for inserting debugging aids that provide breaks in the instructions for insertion of additional code and intermediate output capabilities; Logic Bombsor programs executed at a specific time period; and the common Computer Virus which are malicious codes that cause damage to the system information. [Boni and Kovacich, 2000; p. 59] The Cyber Threat With the advent of the cyber age where information roams free along the electronic corridors of the Internet at the speed of light, another arena has been opened up to the Collector. The tools used are those developed by Hackers and Crackers over the years coupled with the good old social engineering of days past. The potential for gathering information is unlimited. The arena, of course, is the World Wide Web and the target sits on your disk as you view this HTML document. In 1997 it was estimated there were fewer than 1000 people that qualified as Professional Hackers. That is, people who are capable of creating tools or developing original methods for Hacking. [11] Therefore it is safe to assume there are very few Collectors who are true computer geniuses. Collectors are just individuals adept at turning existing tools toward collecting information. An excellent Hackers Toolkit (a software package which contains scripts, programs, or autonomous agents that exploit vulnerabilities [6]) can be downloaded from the internet with just a few hours of searching. Converting computer tools to information collection is relatively easy, because with computers everything is information and everything created for a computer collects and/or transmits information to one degree or another. Corporate web sites hold increasingly detailed information regarding a companys structure, products, employees, and the physical layout of its facilities. Some sites boast fly thr ough tours of their facilities, pictures and bios of their executive officers, telephone numbers, and of course email addresses of key employees. The sole purpose of these web sites is to transmit the information to anyone who asks. Web browsers collect this information and provide it to the requestor who can view and store the information, as they desire. This type of information is invaluable to individuals who choose to exploit it as a means to collect further information. With the wealth of information freely available in todays on-line environment Collectors can do much of their preliminary research without leaving the comfort of their own home or breaking a single law. Armed with the freely available information Collectors are now prepared use the net to gather even more information. With the bios and names of executives and key employees they can search the net for their favorite electronic haunts. Spoofing can then be used. Spoofing is defined as masquerade by assuming the appearance of a different entity in network communications. [6] Emails or ICQ addresses can be spoofed, sent with the Collector poising as an investor, potential customer, a reporter, or even a student researching the rising stars of the corporate world. After receiving replies, Email spoofing can be further used to appear as someone in authority within the corporation who can direct mailing of information, the establishment of computer access accounts, and even grant greater access for established accounts. All of these gives the collector access to just a little bit more of the corporation and its secrets, all with minimal exposure of the collector and sets the stage for furt her attacks. These can range from accessing an unsecured port for downloading files, to exploiting any one of a number of known security holes to gain root access to a system. A good example of the potential for Cyber Industrial Espionage comes from a New York Times report that claimed Reuters Analytics, Inc. hired a Collector to steal the underlying software and codes for their rivals, Bloomberg, L.P, data terminals. Though Reuters had a head start in the industry, Bloombergs product was considered superior. Yearly sales of these data terminals exceeds $6.5 Billion. [11] By mixing Mundane and Cyber techniques collectors can multiply the effects of their collection efforts. The routine of the office, gathered by watching, can enable the collector to plan physical break-ins of the building. While roaming the halls of the corporation they can steal trade secrets, clone drives of key employees, and even set in place login captures, all acts that could go totally undetected because it does no involve the removal of a single piece of property. Well planned daytime entries over lunch the lunch hour can allow the informed collector time clone disks, copy key files, or even send emails from key employees desks to set into motion chains of events to leak information or disrupt company performance. Collectors can make use of internal networks to transmit the documents outside the building to avoid security. Industrial Espionage in America The United States being the most dominant economic power in the world today is also a major target of espionage. In 1988, the FBI accused a former Amgen Inc. researcher of peddling secret documents concerning the wonder drug Epogen. In 1989, U.S. agents tracked down three moles working at an IBM affiliate in France after they supposedly botched a sale of confidential documents. [Cited Crock, 1997] The massive information technology infrastructure enables businesses and industries to tap proprietary and secret information of competitors to gain control of the global market place. Research suggests that the threat of espionage and the loss of proprietary/sensitive information have hit the manufacturing industries particularly hard. As the R D expenses for manufacturing companies are costly, some companies, foreign or domestic, are tempted to catch up even if through unlawful means. [Naef, 2003] Industrial espionage is rampant in the United States according to the FBI, of the 173 world nations, 57 were actively running operations targeting the U.S. companies; about 100 countries spent some portion of their funds targeting U.S. technologies. [Boni and Kovacich, 2000; p. 50] A survey conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers and the American Society for Industrial Security revealed that Fortune 1000 companies lost more than $45 billion in 1999 due to theft of their proprietary information alone. The study finds that â€Å"although manufacturing reported only 96 incidents, the acknowledged losses of manufacturing companies accounted for the majority of losses reported in the survey, and averaged almost $50 million per incident.† [Cited Naef, 2003] While current and former employees, suppliers and customers are considered to be responsible for 70 to 80% of proprietary/sensitive information losses, an unidentified survey suggests that 21 percent of attempted or actual thefts of proprietary/sensitive information occurred in overseas locations. [Boni and Kovacich, 2000; p. 50] It is significant to note that the U.S is not only a target of espionage, but also actively indulge in espionage activities themselves. The US government has admitted using commercial espionage phone calls were illegally tapped to determine that a French competitor of a US firm was bribing Brazilian officials to obtain an air traffic control radar contract; it was later revealed that the US firm was also bribing officials. It is generally believed that large intelligence agencies of developed nations are involved in the practice of espionage. A commission of the European Parliament suspects that ECHELON, a communications espionage system operated by the U.S. National Security Agency and agencies of the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, is used for political espionage and occasionally to help American companies against European competitors. [Vest, 1998] Economic Espionage Act of 1996 Economic and industrial espionage present many challenges to many American companies as rampant information breaches are costing companies substantial sums of money. While corporations and businesses often do not report espionage incidents to law enforcement, the Federal government today recognizes industrial and economic espionage as a crime; the Congress has legislated the Economic Espionage Act of 1996 in an attempt to aid companies to protect themselves from espionage. Section 19831 punishes the theft, misappropriation, wrongful alteration and delivery of trade secrets when accused parties intended to, or knew that their misconduct would benefit a foreign government, instrumentality or agent. The Act allows for legal action regarding â€Å"financial, business, scientific, engineering, technical and economic information,† if a company can demonstrate it has attempted to keep this information classified and protected. The prescribed maximum punishment for an individual offen der is 15 years imprisonment, $ 500,000 fine or both; for an organization the fine is $10 million. [Kelley, 1997] It is understood that many companies dont take advantage of the Act; companies safely exploit the law in full knowledge when news of the breach is known publicly. However, as Naef observes, if the trade secret theft is not publicly known, a company may have to meticulously assess the advantages and disadvantages of suing another company and thereby going public as news of the theft may damage the companys reputation. [Naef, 2003] Yet, cases of industrial and economic espionage have been reported since the enactment of the Act, though scantily. In September 2003 one man was pled guilty of copying trade secrets as defined under the Economic Espionage Act of 1996; the case was the first of its kind in Northern California. The US Attorneys office later publicized that Say Lye Ow, a 31 year old originally from Malaysia, copied sensitive information on Intels first 64-bit processor when he left the company in 1998. [Naef, 2003] Industrial Espionage and Corporate Vulnerability It is often the failure of corporations to adequately protect their information resources that makes them vulnerable to espionage. The vulnerability and the nonchalant attitude of companies are by no means excusable, given the economic implications of the threat of espionage as well as the weakening of the economic power of the subject nation. It may be worthwhile, perhaps vital, to understand the reasons for the vulnerability of corporations in order to prevent espionage and the resulting economic losses to businesses. Businesses make themselves vulnerable to espionage for a variety of reasons, including: Proprietary/sensitive business information not identified Proprietary information not adequately protected Computer and telecommunication systems not adequately protected Lack of or inadequate policies and procedures Employees not aware of their responsibilities Management attitude of â€Å" We dont have proprietary or sensitive information† and/or â€Å"It cant happen to us† [Boni and Kovacich, 2000; p. 50] These factors along with such other threats as increasing miscreants trying to steal information for money and the vulnerabilities of systems on the Internet facilitating information theft on a global scale present pervasive threat to information worth protecting as well as challenge managers, security personnel and law enforcement officials responsible for safety and security of information. Employees, a Threat or Defence Whether called Social Engineering, as in most Hacker manuals, or HUMINT (Human Intelligence), as the Department of Defense refers to it, your employees are targets of Collectors. People are a two-edged weapon in securing your corporate secrets being both the best protection, and the biggest risk. Proper training, education, and motivation can give people the tools and desire to keep your corporate secrets safe. Conversely, appealing to the vanity, greed, or vengeful nature of disenchanted or bored people has always been a tool of the traditional spy. Now these appeals can be made with protection of the electronic web. After gathering sufficient information on employees the Collector can choose his target. If the individual bites, a face to face meeting can be scheduled, if not the only thing that can be turned over the security is an email address or ICQ number, all easily disposed of with no trace to the Collector. Another method used to attack through your employees is to take the information gathered by Mundane and Cyber means and impersonate another individual or spoof them electronically. Calls are placed over the phone, or messages sent via email pretending to be someone with the authority to make decisions. A good choice would be one of those executive officers with the picture and bio on the corporate web page. Regardless of the role many bored or uncaring individuals will give out information to include IP addresses, system setup, and even passwords and userids over to phone when intimidated. Recruiting Insiders is another common practice among Collectors. Many publications on computer security identify the most common source of intentional disruption as authorized individuals performing unauthorized activity. [13] Again, much of the information on the individuals that you would like to recruit can be found in publicly accessible databases and web sites. From this, some casual research can yield those candidates who are most susceptible to bribes or extortion. Often after proper research the Collector can make his presence know to the Insider and have them make the first overtures. This allows the Collector to have some modicum of confidence the individual will no go running straight to corporate security. Insiders are the most valuable assets a Collector can have. They have the time and freedom to search peoples desks, read private memos, copy documents, and abuse coworker friendships. [3] The threat does not end when the Insider leaves the corporation either. In 1992 se veral General Motors employees were accused of taking over 10,000 documents and disks containing GM trade secrets when they defected to Volkswagen. GM sued and in 1997 received a payment of $100 million from Volkswagen. [11] Inserting Agents is one of the least risky forms of Industrial Espionage. The Collector handpicks the individual who they intend to insert. They provide the training, background story, and decide at which level to attempt to insert the individual. Once hired, even in a position of limited access, the individual becomes a trusted Insider for the Collector, able to provide increasing levels of access and perform some of the Mundane and Cyber attacks from within the corporation with minimum threat of being caught. Preventing Industrial Espionage While legal measures and legislations that send strong messages against espionage can be effective in preventing its occurrence, the role and responsibility of corporations is crucial. Even as companies take a non-serious approach to espionage, there is little debate that companies should guard themselves effectively against the ‘info-thieves, both insiders and those unleashed by outsiders, who try to get secrets by all possible means. Measures that may help companies to prevent espionage include: Conducting a survey of risk assessment, and identifying potential risk areas, Developing a security policy without much of safety risks. Frequently evaluating the security policy and procedures and modify if necessary Classifying and marking sensitive and valuable information Isolating information that should never fall into the hands of a competitor Detecting the vulnerable areas that could be exploited by a competitor Controlled storage of sensitive information Controlled destruction of materials Executing Nondisclosure Agreements for employees, vendors and contractors Securing computer systems and networks by installing appropriate information system security products Monitoring email and Internet use [Winkler, 1997; Boni and Kovacich, 2000] While the above methods may be useful in protecting against espionage, central to controlling the industrial espionage is security awareness and training of employees as one of the major points of vulnerability is spying activities by people belonging to the same organization. â€Å"Security awareness and training programs can serve to inform employees about their organizations information security policy, to sensitize them to risks and potential losses, and to train them in the use of security practices and technologies† [Denning, 1998, p.382]. By investing in security procedures and training, corporations may train employees in the areas of personnel, cyberspace and physical security; they can also be made aware of their responsibilities regarding information security of the organization. Conclusion The increasing value of trade secret information in the global and domestic marketplace and the possibilities of the information technology revolution have resulted in a significant rise in espionage activities in the recent years, particularly against the U.S. being the most dominant economic power in the world. While legislations may be useful in preventing the crime of industrial and economic espionage, the onus is largely on corporations to implement adequate security policies and measures to protect themselves from business losses as well as prevent the weakening of the economic power of their country. References 1. Boni W. Kovacich G.L. (2000) Netspionage: The Global Threat to Information MA: Butterworth- Heinemann 2. Crock, S. (1997) â€Å"Business Spies: The New Enemy Within?† Book Review: War By Other Means† Economic Espionage in America By John J. Fialka Business Week Available at: http://www.businessweek.com/1997/06/b351325.htm Accessed 02/26/06 3. Denning, D. E. (1998) Information Warfare and Security MA: Addison-Wesley 4. Jones A. Kovacich G.L. Luzvick P.G. (2002) Global Information Warfare: How Businesses, Governments and Others Achieve Objectives and At

History of Refugee Integration in the UK

History of Refugee Integration in the UK Is it accurate to say that the UK has a proud history of providing sanctuary for genuine refugees? In 1951, the United Nations passed the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (known as the Refugee Convention). The aim of this was to protect persons, in the wake of the Second World War, being returned to states and nations where they would suffer persecution. It was the first codification of a practice which is in fact centuries old; that of developed countries offering protection and sanctuary to individuals who suffer such persecution. Since its inception and ratification, the Refugee Convention has been viewed variously as a positive advance, and increasingly in recent years, as a hindrance to the United Kingdom’s policies of migration control. Although no country has ever withdrawn from the Convention, this option has been suggested in Britain as a possible solution to the perceived problems relating to immigration which the UK faces. How is it, then, that a country that prides itself on its history of providing sanctuary and protection to refugees, can be contemplating such a withdrawal from the codification of immigrant policy? The truth is that the belief of the United Kingdom’s relationship with immigrants is somewhat less appealing than the ‘proud history’ of public perception suggests. Nor is this proud history the only myth relating to the UK’s relationship with immigration. It is similarly untrue to state that the UK is an immigration honey pot. The UK is certainly an attractive place for genuine refugees from persecution to approach. Official figures and patterns, however, suggest that the reality is somewhat different and that the scare-mongering and rabble-rousing employed by anti-immigrationists is somewhat misplaced. What, then, is a refugee? It is interesting that while persons and populations fleeing their homelands to escape persecution and suffering is as old as any civilisation, the term ‘refugee’ is itself a relatively modern and highly specific term. One tends to think of ‘refugees’ as any in-migrant to, in this case, the British Isles, whether they be fleeing political or economic persecution, or indeed, in some cases, whether they are simply seeking a better life in a new country. The modern, accepted definition of a refugee is to be found in Article 1 of the Refugee Convention, which describes a refugee as any person who has been considered a refugee under various other agreements, but more specifically, to a person who as a result of events occurring before 1 January 1951 and owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable, or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events is unable or, owing to such fears, is unwilling to return to it.[1] There follows various provisions for a person so described ceasing to be classed as a refugee, for example where that person has re-availed himself of the protection of the country of his nationality. Having defined broadly what the statutory definition of a refugee is, the next question which ought to be considered is why such a person would wish to come to the UK? As shall be discussed, the UK has not always had such a proud history of offering sanctuary to refugees. This does not, however, detract from the fact that in the post-Second World War years, but even in eras prior to that, the UK has been seen as a very welcoming and attractive prospect for refugees. Compared to certain Western countries, both within Europe and also in the wider economically developed ‘West’ (Australia providing the most stark example), Britain’s policies (and policies should be distinguished from actual practice and results here) have been relatively relaxed. The exact nature of these policies will be examined. Aside from these, the attractions of the United Kingdom to refugees are that the Isles offer political and religious freedom and liberty. The fact that the Church of Englan d is part of the Establishment, this is less and less important in an increasingly secularised state, and anyway unimportant because of the primacy accorded to religious tolerance. Within the UK, refugees will suffer no systematic and State-sponsored persecution as they might elsewhere. As will become apparent, however, this certainly does not mean that refugees granted sanctuary within the UK are guaranteed freedom from such persecution at the hands of the grass-roots population. There is, then, an important distinction to be remembered when considering the history of Britain as a provider of sanctuary to refugees. This distinction is between the official State attitude to immigration and sanctuary, most recognisably apparent, of course, in legislation, and the attitudes of the population, all-too-often categorised by prejudices and narrow-mindedness, and manifested in attacks and effectively persecution of such refugees. The first significant period of modern British history in which refugees became significant is that covering the years, roughly, from 1880 until the inception of the Refugee Convention in 1951. During this period, which witnessed the two largest sudden occurrences of mass-population movement occasioned by the two World Wars, Britain found herself facing a new problem, sensitive and difficult both in humanitarian terms, and also political feasibility. The first major piece of British legislation which considered the issue of refugees was the Aliens Act 1905. Prior to this, there had been a series of Acts which sought to impose some sort of system of regulation of arriving aliens. Mostly, these required masters of in-bound ships to make reports of foreign aliens that they were carrying, and obliged all in-coming aliens to report to the Secretary of State upon arrival. The 1905 Act, however, introduced the first system of comprehensive registration and immigration control. The Act place d control of such matters firmly with the Home Secretary. The most striking aspect of this new legislation was that it offered, for the first time, the Home Secretary the power to deport aliens whom he believed to be either criminals or paupers. The first category is understandable and, but 21st century standards even acceptable; the second is not. The second major piece of legislation followed in 1914, with the Aliens Registration Act. This had more tangible effects on the accuracy of information relating to immigrants, as it made it compulsory for all immigrants over the age of 16 to register with the police. The immigrants were required to give detailed information to the police of their names, addresses, occupations and race. If any such particulars changed, immigrants were required to register such changes. There was also a registration fee. Although the legislation looks to be relatively favourable to immigrants, the reality was somewhat different. This was largely due to the fact that the Aliens Act was weakly enforced. As Winder states, it soon became obvious that the scheme was ‘clumsy and unworkable’.[2] This, then, was the legislation that was in place when the Great War broke out. The effect of the war on immigration was to bring about a massive influx of refugees from Russia and Belgium who sought sanctuary from persecution. A disproportionate number of these immigrants, particularly from Russia, were Jews. The influx led to an anti-alien backlash amongst the British population, however, although this was not indiscriminate. The unfortunate Germans did, of course, bear the brunt of this, but these were rarely ‘refugees’ as we understand the term today. The fortunes of the Russian Jews, for example, was different, on occasion, from that of the Belgians. Jews had been banished from Moscow in1890, and their migration was therefore enforced. They provided an example of a genuine refugee, and sought to enter Britain as an alternative to their former place of residence. It is estimated that between 1881 and 1914, the number of Jews arriving as 150,000.[3] Although Britain had set up the Board of Guardians for the Relief of the Jewish Poor, the backlash was encouraged by the ever-increasing number of Jewish arrivals. This is perhaps an early example of the disparity between what can be seen as state charity and willingness to accommodate, and the uglier grass-roots antipathy to the effects of such policy. ‘In Britain, the newly arrive Jews were the chief victims of the anti-immigration lobby.’[4] Anti-Jewish feeling is what characterised the first half of the twentieth century, and this did not simply improve as the spectre of Nazi-ascendancy loomed. If anything, it became more institutionalised. In a report from the police of 1939 relating to the immigration of Jewish refugees, Jennifer Williams wrote that ‘it may be remarked in passing however that the tone of their [the police’s] report is predominantly anti-Jewish.’[5] Indeed the UK as a whole was slow to respond to the persecution of the Jews in its immigration policy, providing perhaps the worst example of how the UK has failed in its treatment of genuine refugees. The most striking example of this occurred in response to the Anschuss; Hitler’s annexation of Austria in March 1938. Britain was not alone, but her response was far from commendable. Along with other countries of first refuge, Britain’s Jewish refugee organisation was quick to exclude future entrants and asserted its right t o select who it would support.[6] In an example of state as opposed to grass-roots policy toward refugees, the British government ‘moved rapidly to re-introduce a visa requirement to stem the influx of refugee Jews.’[7] Any discussion of Britain’s ‘proud history’ of providing sanctuary to genuine refugees must acknowledge that in the European Jews’ most desperate time of need, the UK, both at government and at grass-roots level, took active measures to prevent immigration of the needy. The second significant period in a discussion of the relationship of Britain with refugees is that from the inception of the Refugee Convention in 1951 through till the late 1960; a period that witnessed an increasing dissipation of the British Empire. It was this phenomenon, rather than the enforcement of the Refugee Convention, that led to this period being seen as ‘good’ period for refugees in Britain. Two significant Acts of Parliament in this period were the Commonwealth Immigrants Acts of 1962 and 1968. These characterised not only the attitudes of the state towards refugees, but also what could be, and has been, seen as an attempt to use the influx of immigrants to Britain in the post-war years as an advertisement for Britain’s generous policies towards refugees. It is here that another important distinction must be remembered; that between immigrants and ‘refugees’ as defined in the 1951 Convention. During the period from the end of the War till the Act, the overwhelming majority of immigrants to the UK were not classed as refugees. They came, rather, from Commonwealth and former Empire countries. As such, they enjoyed relatively easy access to Britain and the influx of, for example, West Africans, has been well documented. In little more than a decade, it has been estimated that more than 300,000 immigrants arrived.[8] This was accompanied by an increase amongst the population of violence towards such communities (the immigrants, of course, tending to congregate together in geographical locations). The immigrants themselves were not wholly without blame, and reports abounded of violence and crime orchestrated by the immigrants themselves. It was the response of the domestic British population, however, that was most problematic . The Government’s response was a new work-permit scheme which, as Winder points out, had been carefully devised so as to ‘exclude coloured workers without discriminating against them too explicitly.’[9] The Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962 was an example of the Government bowing to public pressure to take action, and as Rab Butler commented, it was a ‘sad necessity’. It was in this period after the Refugee Convention that the distinction became significant between refugee as defined in the Convention and simple asylum seekers. The former were required to demonstrate that they had a ‘well-founded fear’ of persecution at home. Political asylum applied, technically, to those who were evading arrest in another country on account of their political beliefs and where they could not expect a fair trial in that country. Subsequently, the distinction would become blurred and problematic, but in this period it was still a significant distinction, largely because of the provisions of the Refugee Convention and the Commonwealth Immigrants Acts. The 1962 Act required all Commonwealth citizens seeking employment in the United Kingdom to qualify for an employment voucher. Those without a British passport were also required to hold a work permit, which were not that easy to come by. The 1968 Act further tightened measures relating to immigrants. Und er this Act, potential immigrants had to prove that either they, their parents or grandparents had been born in the UK. The effect of this is obvious; for many, indeed most, this is an impossible requirement, and the Acts reflect the growing antipathy towards large scale immigration while at the same time, advertising Britain as a country that looked after and welcomed refugees and other immigrants. The final definable period is that from around the late 1960s until the present day, a period which has seen the number of refugees entering or seeking to enter Britain increase dramatically. The period has been characterised, again, by lenient and welcoming policies on the one hand, contrasted with stricter and prohibitive visa requirements and stricter interpretation of the Refugee Convention. The first occurrence in this trend was the legislation of 1971. The Immigration Act of that year rationalised the prior legislation relating to immigrants by dispensing with the existing distinction between Commonwealth and non-Commonwealth entrants. One of the growing problems in this period related to race relations between the British indigenous population and the immigrant communities. The Race Relations Act 1965 had made racial discrimination illegal, but this did not stem the growing hostility between British people and their new neighbours. Much of this hostility was based upon scare-mongering by various elements within the British landscape both at grass-roots level and indeed in high politics. Refugees were to suffer as much as everyone else under such hostilities. It was estimated officially in the House of Commons in 1967 that the non-white population of Britain would reach 3.5 million as soon as 1985. This turned out not to be the case, as the first census to show a non-white population in 1991 recorded the number to be less than 3 million.[10] Such ‘estimates’ and figures were used by many both in government and the press to lobby for tighter controls and a stricter policy. There was, in this period, an increasing, and false, supposition that the number of immigrants (including refugees) would start to burden the welfare state unduly. This, of course, provided one of the biggest draws to all potential migrants to the UK; particularly, perhaps, to refugees. As Clarke points out, the post-war generation of immigrants would make demands on child welfare services and schools, they would make little demand on old aged pensions and geriatric care. Furthermore, the misconception about the overall scale and effect of immigration was based upon the fact that immigrant populations tended to be so concentrated in particular areas.[11] It was, then, against this backdrop of increasing public scepticism and hostility, that successive British governments in the 1970s and 1980s had to balance the increasing toll of despotic regimes causing higher numbers of refugees, and the capacity of the state to accommodate them. Unfortunately, the balance seems to have tilted away from the refugees as the British interpretation of the Convention has tightened. It is worth noting that the Refugee Convention has never been incorporated into British law, and the British Government is therefore under no obligation to observe it. It was not until the Immigration Appeals Act 1993 that the government was even obliged to consider it. Under this Act, nothing in British immigration rules and practice should contravene the Convention. The process of application for asylum is protracted and uncertain. There are now strict requirements and high levels of evidence to establish that one is a genuine refugee. An example of this is the need to pr ove that one is the member of a particular social group. How does one prove this? Another example of the British governments’ hardening attitudes towards immigrants is that those travelling to Britain through a third country are obliged to seek asylum there. This is, perhaps, a fair request, but it hardly reflects the policy of a country happy and willing to accommodate genuine refugees. The period since the 1880s has, then, seen a fluctuating level of concern for refugees seeking sanctuary within the UK. It cannot be said that Britain has a wholly proud history of accommodating genuine refugees, although her policies have tended to be slightly more lenient than her European and other Western neighbours’ (those seeking citizenship of the US must take a Constitutional exam to demonstrate their commitment to the country). It would be unfair to characterise successive British governments as being unaccommodating to genuine refugees, and there have been measures put in place genuinely aimed at helping such immigrants. Much of the suffering that immigrants have undergone has occurred once they have been granted sanctuary, at the hands of the indigenous population (both at grass-roots level and in the political arena), who have often been afraid of the potential draining effect of the nation’s resources of such incoming populations, and who often forget the s ignificant economic input such immigrants actually make. On balance, it would seem that it is inaccurate to say that Britain has a ‘proud history’ of granting asylum to genuine refugees. BIBLIOGRAPHY Statute Aliens Act 1905 Aliens Registration Act 1914 Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees 1951 Immigration Act 1971 Immigration Appeals Act 1993 Race Relations Act 1965 Secondary sources Brook, C. (Ed), The Caribbean in Europe (London, 1986) Clarke, P., Hope and Glory (Penguin, 1996) Halsey, A.H. (Ed), Trends in British Society Since 1900 (1972) Lawrence, D., Black Migrants, White Natives (Cambridge, 1974) Layton-Henry, Z., The Politics of Immigration (Blackwell, 1992) London, L., Whitehall and the Jews (Cambridge, 1999) Nairn, T., The Break-up of Britain (London, 1981) Winder, R., Bloody Foreigners, the story of immigration to Britain (London, 2004) Footnotes [1] Article 1(2) of the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 28 July 1951 [2] Winder, R., Bloody Foreigners, the story of immigration to Britain (London, 2004), p202 [3] Winder, p178 [4] Winder, p195 [5] J. Willians, Memorandum, 3 August 1939, quoted in London, L., Whitehall and the Jews (Cambridge, 1999), p278 [6] London, p58 [7] Ibid [8] Winder, p283 [9] Ibid [10] Clarke, P., Hope and Glory (Penguin, 1996), p326 [11] Ibid

Susan Hills Women in Black and Mary Shellys Frankenstein :: English Literature

Susan Hill's 'Women in Black' and 'Mary Shelly's 'Frankenstein' The word gothic means 18th Century literature referring to a frightening manner of content being used. I have chosen two gothic novels to indicate the typical features of a gothic novel. One is Susan Hill's 'Women in Black' and 'Mary Shelly's 'Frankenstein'. These two gothic novels concentrate on the two major worries within society when these books were published. Frankenstein concentrates on the pre-curser on science fiction. This pre-curser in Frankenstein is man's objective to play god. Frankenstein was written in a period of time when science was elevating but society in general was afraid to accept a progress being made by man they preferred progresses justified by God. Mary Shelly could relate to her novel of 'Frankenstein' to the period of time when it was written because the many people living in the 18th century when she was alive, were driven by religion not by science and new revelations being made by man were considered to be playing god. In Mary Shelly's Frankenstein she states in the introduction of the book that, during the time period when Frankenstein was written the majority of published novels were not gripping or new and her novel would make an unusual change to which society can relate to. The Women in black concentrates on the grief when losing a young child. This was published in 2000 and it is relatable towards today's society because a lot parents today can relate to having children and know how protective they are towards their own children. Personally since I do not have children of my own I found it difficult to relate with the grief the characters posses and from that my general interest in the story began to sway. The typical feature a gothic novel possesses is setting the scene. The second chapter of The Women in Black concentrates on the surroundings, the author portrays the weather on a Monday afternoon in November as a lightning heart of change, never seeming to come fully light and also raw to and a yellow fog, a filthy fog, evil smelling fog, a fog that choked and blinded, smeared and stained. Susan Hill instantaneously creates a felling of ill being and fear. The novel begins in November which is a symbolism of death, creating negative atmosphere to begin the novel with. In comparison with Mary Shelly's Frankenstein this is very similar. When the creature Frankenstein is created, the Author portrays the weather and time of day as a, dreary night of November. Also instantaneously Mary shelly has created a felling of fear describing the event to occur again in the month of November and also

The Good Earth: Summary Essay -- essays research papers

The Good Earth: Summary Wang Lung was the son of a peasant farmer. When it came for him to marry, his father chose a slave girl from the house of Hwang who was hardworking. O- lan, Wang Lung's wife was a good wife for Wang Lung. She did not waste anything, and made items such as shoes for the family so Wang Lung could save his money for other things.. She worked endlessly for Wang Lung and his father, and even helped Wang Lung plow the field. One day while helping on the field, O-lan went inside and bore their first child. Luckily, it was a boy. Girls at that time were always slaves, or married to other family's sons. They named him Nung Wen.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before leaving the house of Hwang earlier, O-lan promised to bring their first child to pay respects to the house. That year, the harvest was good, so Wang Lung bought new clothes for O-lan, the baby, and himself. After paying their respects, Wang Lung made a deal with the house of Hwang and bought a plot of good land just outside the house. One year later, another boy was born and was named Nung En.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wang Lung's third child was a disaster. Not only was it a girl, but she was born retarded. That summer, a drought hit the area where Wang Lung lived, and it did not rain for months. There was little harvest, and soon all of the wheat was gone. Starving, Wang Lung had his ox killed for food, but could not bear to watch because the beast had been so faithful to him. Not having any money, Wang Lung sold the furniture in his house for a few silver pieces. His fourth child was born in the drought, and was born dead. The family was forced to move South to find food, so with the money he made from selling the furniture, Wang Lung paid train fare to go down south.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On the train, Wang Lung spent some more money to buy material so they could build a hut when they reached the city. At the city, they built their hut, and discovered a kitchen where for almost no money at all, a person could eat all of the rice they wanted. Wang Lung bought enough rice for his family, and they ate it heartily. Now, Wang Lung needed money again, so the next day he rented a ricksha to transport the rich around the city for money, and O-lan and the children begged for money. After paying the rent for the ricksha, Wang Lung did not make a lot, but it was enough to sup... ...e opium, and began to annoy Wang Lung's older son's wife by talking dirty and walking around with his robe open. Seeing this, Nung Wen became very angry and Wang Lung rented a portion of the house of Hwang. The uncle and his wife were left in the country with their opium, and the uncle's son left to join the army.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Ching died, Wang Lung stopped farming and rented out his land, hoping that his youngest son would tend the land, but when he took a girl that his youngest son liked, his youngest son ran away from home and joined the army.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Wang Lung's death came near, he moved back to the country to be with his land. He brought only his slave Pear Blossom, that his youngest son loved, and his first daughter that was simple. One day as he was looking at the fields with his sons, he heard them talking about how they were going to spend their inheritance and what they would do with the money they would make from selling the land. Wang Lung cried out that they must never sell the land because only with land could they be sure of earning a living. But Wang Lung did not see his sons look at each other over his head and grin.

Privacy And The Internet Essay -- Web Cyberspace Internet papers

Privacy and the Internet The natural progression of the Internet and emerging technologies is towards streamlining our lives both personally and professionally. Instantaneous communications and available on-line services continue to reduce the physical distance between individuals. Almost anything is now available in cyberspace from shopping, schooling and education, on-line trading, banking, to social and political on-line communities. On-line service providers are shifting from a product centric approach to a more personal and customized approach to marketing their products and services. The idea of one-to-one marketing is very powerful and has become an important tool for competing in the interactive age. One-to-one marketing takes a customer-orientated approach to selling; customers are treated as individuals with different interests and needs. We respond positively to individual attention; when we visit a web site we want to see products and services of interest to us not every available product. We do not want to waste our time. For many people, time is money and the convenience factor ways heavily on the decision to return to a web site. Are the benefits of electronic communication at the expense of our privacy? How does the Internet affect the availability and use of our personal information? The Internet brings another dimension to the issue of privacy. Whether you are voting on-line or buying a book from Amazon.com you must consider how much personal information has been collected about you, with or without your consent, and how it can be used. Policies governing privacy on the Internet are still not clearly defined and many on-line users do not understand how the information they provide will be used. How much... ...activity are all available at the press of a button. Soon we will have on-line refrigerators that can place grocery orders, washing machines that can access the Internet to determine the best wash cycle for a delicate fabric and Internet connectivity available from every room in the house. If we reap the benefits of communications technology, we must expect to pay the price with our privacy. Works Cited Bridis, Ted. Comcast Tracks Users Web Browsing. Los Angeles Times 12 Feb 2002. http:www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/politics/wire/sns-ap-internet-privacy/0212feb12.story (25 Feb 2002). Grossman, Lawrence K. The Shape of the Electronic Republic. Composing Cyberspace. Richard Holeton. United States: McGraw-Hill, 1998, 311-327. Birkets, Sven. Into the Electronic Millennium. Composing Cyberspace. Richard Holeton. United States: McGraw-Hill, 1998, 311-327. Privacy And The Internet Essay -- Web Cyberspace Internet papers Privacy and the Internet The natural progression of the Internet and emerging technologies is towards streamlining our lives both personally and professionally. Instantaneous communications and available on-line services continue to reduce the physical distance between individuals. Almost anything is now available in cyberspace from shopping, schooling and education, on-line trading, banking, to social and political on-line communities. On-line service providers are shifting from a product centric approach to a more personal and customized approach to marketing their products and services. The idea of one-to-one marketing is very powerful and has become an important tool for competing in the interactive age. One-to-one marketing takes a customer-orientated approach to selling; customers are treated as individuals with different interests and needs. We respond positively to individual attention; when we visit a web site we want to see products and services of interest to us not every available product. We do not want to waste our time. For many people, time is money and the convenience factor ways heavily on the decision to return to a web site. Are the benefits of electronic communication at the expense of our privacy? How does the Internet affect the availability and use of our personal information? The Internet brings another dimension to the issue of privacy. Whether you are voting on-line or buying a book from Amazon.com you must consider how much personal information has been collected about you, with or without your consent, and how it can be used. Policies governing privacy on the Internet are still not clearly defined and many on-line users do not understand how the information they provide will be used. How much... ...activity are all available at the press of a button. Soon we will have on-line refrigerators that can place grocery orders, washing machines that can access the Internet to determine the best wash cycle for a delicate fabric and Internet connectivity available from every room in the house. If we reap the benefits of communications technology, we must expect to pay the price with our privacy. Works Cited Bridis, Ted. Comcast Tracks Users Web Browsing. Los Angeles Times 12 Feb 2002. http:www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/politics/wire/sns-ap-internet-privacy/0212feb12.story (25 Feb 2002). Grossman, Lawrence K. The Shape of the Electronic Republic. Composing Cyberspace. Richard Holeton. United States: McGraw-Hill, 1998, 311-327. Birkets, Sven. Into the Electronic Millennium. Composing Cyberspace. Richard Holeton. United States: McGraw-Hill, 1998, 311-327.

Is the Globalization tide turning? Essay

Marber attempts to analyze the origin and goals of the G8 countries and postulates that G8 needs to reinvent and reorient itself to address changing dynamics at the global level. The Cold War played a crucial role in the formation of Group of Eight (G8) as a forum to address and promote multilateralism among the nations that endorsed market-centric approach to economics. Politically and economically G8 sought to offer a viable alternative to centrally planned socialist economics. G8 nations placed emphasis on stability from a cross-regional perspective and hence promoted economic interdependence among the member nations. To a large extent G8 has been successful and its success encouraged the hitherto closed economies to open and emulate the economic model of G8 nations. The fact that Soviet Union broke up into 15 different countries and they all shifted their economic approach to market-centric one is an ample evidence of G8 and its policies. Despite the success it has enjoyed since formed G8 is in urgent need of reorienting itself. Some of the â€Å"developing nations† have indeed developed to a large extent and G8 needs to acknowledge this fundamental fact of economic evolution. With globalization as its central tenet G8 needs a fresh approach for ensuring multilateralism in the future. This becomes doubly difficult as the world is witnessing lack of global consensus on trade, security and law. Due to the various financial crises and terrorism at the global level there is now the looming threat of reversion i. e. protectionist trade policies and capital controls. In order not to lose its relevance in the increasingly globalized world, G8 needs to address the paradox of countries cooperating with each other economically but moving apart politically. The former centrally planned economies in Latin America, Asia and Africa have abandoned their old economic policies and have embraced free market ideology. Marber stresses the fact that the some of the emerging economies actually fund the deficits of G8 governments and postulates the concept of E8 i. e. Emerging 8 nations that will include China, India, Brazil, Indonesia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey and Mexico. Marber further differentiates G8 from E8 based on parameters like median age and purchasing power parity and concludes that E8 will soon outperform the G8 nations. To accommodate this G8 needs to shed its old image of dominant hegemony and needs to take a fresh look at the emerging economies. The emerging economies do not represent the entire global citizenry by any means, but they do exhibit tendencies to join global commonwealth as responsible nations. Though the corporations in the G8 nations have acknowledged the relevance of E8, it has been observed the G8 nations are bit slow to integrate themselves into the changing economic world order. Marber provides numerous examples of the way corporations in G8 countries engage and compete in the emerging markets. The paper then differentiates all the emerging economies in detail individually and states the advantages these economies currently enjoy. China for example has renegotiated a new bilateral meeting with US to address trade issues and currently seems to financing major portion of US debt. India on the other hand seems to enjoy the benefits of world’s largest English speaking democracy and is deemed as a super power in the making in high-tech fields. Turkey is situated in a strategically important location and trace an historical relationship with Europe and its secular model seems to be proving a huge benefit. Mexico as largest trading partner of the United States is integrating itself faster into the US and Canadian economies within the framework of NAFTA. In contrast another Latin American giant Brazil has developed its capabilities in fields ranging from agriculture to aviation. South Africa possesses a capability to enmesh disparate political groups and ideologies in the African continent. According to Marber these are the salient facts that needs to be taken into consideration if G8 is to refashion itself and still play a meaningful role in the future. In this regard Marber mentions eight policy areas for G8, where G8 nations need to place a greater emphasis. He further explains these policy areas like trade, security etc in detail and is of the opinion that these need to be taken up seriously by the G8 nations and regain their pioneering efforts in globalization. The health of globalized system of interconnected and interdependent economies requires a vast diversification beyond the existing G8 nations. Marber claims that E8 nations should not just be free riders but should become active participants and hence should share responsibility in maintaining globalized world order. G8 nations on their part should cease to be patronizing and instead should seek to build partnerships with the emerging nations actively. According to Marber there is an acute need of expanded and enabled group deriving largely from the existing G8 nations and believes inclusion of E8 nations will be the right step in that direction. He concludes by saying this is the logical step forward that would preemptively exclude looming threat protectionist globalization. The central tenet of the paper lies in its emphasis on E8 nations as a counter threat to emerging anti-multilateralism. Answers to the Questions: 1. How many other were involved in writing this article? Answer: Three. Peter Marber was main author but he has been assisted by two of his colleagues (Christian Deseglise and Avi Sharon). 2. What are the 5 factors that contributed to a visible crack in the G8? Answer: The five factors that contributed to a visible crack are: 1) collapse of WTOs Doha talks on trade 2) lack of global consensus on environment laid out in Kyoto protocol 3) undermining of International Criminal Court 4) protectionist government policies related to selective cross-border acquisitions and 5) lack of consensus on the invasion of Iraq. 3. What are the 8 policy areas that will bring the G8/E8 together? Answer: The policy areas that will bring G8/E8 together are: a) Trade b) Security c) Energy d) Immigration e) Environment f) Health & Drugs g) Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) h) Poverty Works Cited Marber, Peter. From the G8 to the â€Å"E8† Is the Globalization Tide Turning? World Policy Journal 23. 3 (2006): 42-51.

Against the Odds, and Against the Common Good Essay

In her essay, â€Å"Against the Odds, and Against the Common Good,† Gloria Jimenez evaluates the debate for state-run lotteries and surmises that state representatives, having citizens’ welfare in mind, should not pass bills urging them to gamble. In today’s society, state-run lotteries are common establishments considering the majority of our country has one. Thirty-nine states and the District of Columbia all have lotteries justified as necessary state funds beneficial to the common good. But with state lotteries no one wins—not schools, not the government and not the American public. (1) The lottery system does not contribute notable funds to the state or schools (2) it is a regressive form of taxation (3) it creates limited jobs (4) it is harmful to American values and society (5)but they claim to be fair and honest. Overall, lotteries are neither practical nor fair, and they are harmful to the common good. First, let me point out that lotteries do not achieve their first goal of contributing notable funds to the state or schools. The most valid defense for lotteries is that they will increase Educational funding, when, in fact, contributes very little. In her research, Jimenez briefly explains her findings and deducts â€Å"the lotteries have been paying out roughly 4 percent to the businesses while taking in almost $20 billion in 2002.† (New York Times, May 18, 2003, sec. 4, p. 1). If states raised income tax by a fraction of a percent, they could generate just as much revenue as state lotteries. That is how insignificant they are. As well as being an ineffective money raising scheme, the lottery is also a regressive form of taxation. The attraction of the lottery is to strike it rich instantaneously and never have to work again. The message is most evident to the poor, undereducated, and compulsive gamblers. As a result, these citizens participate in the lottery spending an average of three times as much of their income on lottery tickets than the wealthy would. This is, in effect, due to false and misleading advertising aimed specifically at this market. Furthermore, the only new jobs that are created unless, by chance a new casino goes in, are the vacancies for advertising executives and accounting clerks. The positions for clerks that actually sell the tickets do not need filling because they are previously filled at convenience and grocery stores. In addition, state run lotteries are unwholesome and dangerous for the common good. They send out a message that opposes the ethics of hard work, sacrifice, and integrity—everything Americans believe in. The lottery is deceptive and encourages people to believe that they will win something for nothing. Still, government allows lotteries and actually promotes them, encouraging citizens to participate. One of the greatest problems associated with the lottery is that it can lead to addiction. So although people are buying the tickets of their own free will and free will to participate is one of the pro’s of the lottery. Exactly how much free will really is there when all of the manipulation is being done by the ad executives targeting prime citizens, the government strong-arming the constituents into their lottery schemes, and the gambling addicts cannot really help themselves? Government has no business enticing people to gamble their hard earned money for an against the odds chance of winning a big cash prize. It is irresponsible, immoral and far from fair and honest. Works Cited Jimenez, Gloria. â€Å"Against the Odds, and Against the Common Good.† Pg. 112-114. Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing. Barnett & Bedau. New York. Bedford/St. Martin.2008. Print